This further condition which I am calling twin world explains why we are still justified in assigning moral responsibility to an agent who fails to satisfy PAP in the manner described within Frankfurts counter-example. England, France and the smaller nations of the European continent, with their congeries of people and industries would be in a particularly desperate situation in the face of such a threat. Dennett's Luther Argument ("character examples"). We now consider the question of how an effective international control of nuclear armaments can be achieved. If he changed his SOD, it would not make a difference. Question 10. Harry Frankfurt's description of the distinctly human quality of forming desires about their desires, opinions about their opinions. The only reason to treat nuclear power differently from all other developments in the field of physics is the possibility of its use as a means of political pressure in peace and sudden destruction in war. Libertarian freedom and the principle of alternative possibilities. 231248). rock creek ranch bc contemporaries who agreed with franck's argument. Our possibilities of retaliation -- even if retaliation should be considered adequate compensation for the loss of millions of lives and destruction of our largest cities -- will be greatly handicapped because we must rely on aerial transportation of the bombs, and also because we may have to deal with an enemy whose industry and population are dispersed over a large territory. This may sound fantastic, but in nuclear weapons we have something entirely new in order of magnitude of destructive power, and if we want to capitalize fully on the advantage their possession gives us, we must use new and imaginative methods. Fosse Dancers: The thrill of "Bob Fosse's Dancin'," a revival of the 1978 musical is, aptly, its dancers. . No paper agreement can be sufficient since neither this or any other nation can stake its whole existence on trust in other nations' signatures. Once this is achieved, the large installations and the accumulation of explosive material at present earmarked for potential military use will become available for important peacetime developments, including power production, large engineering undertakings, and mass production of radioactive materials. Philosophical Studies, 157, 177194. Study with Quizlet and memorize flashcards containing terms like Dennett's Luther Argument ("character examples"). PAP(s) is not vulnerable to Frankfurts or similar counter-examples. If the United States were to be the first to release this new means of indiscriminate destruction upon mankind, she would sacrifice public support throughout the world, precipitate the race for armaments and prejudice the possibility of reaching an international agreement on the future control of such weapons. In 1906, Wendell T. Bush became associated with the Journal as co-editor. Slider with three articles shown per slide. In 1923, theJournalwas incorporated in the State of New York under its present name. His dreams of a certain amount of land for each person have been realized to a point in American suburbs, but many of these bedroom communities lack the amenities on which Wright would have insisted. Robinson, M. (2012). It has been suggested that a compulsory denaturation of pure fissionable isotopes may be agreed uponby diluting them, after production, with suitable isotopes to make them useless for military purposes, while retaining their usefulness for power engines. "He has refused his Assent to Laws, the most wholesome and necessary for the public good.". posi This means that, ceteris paribus, what S would have done in W2 is what S would do in W1 in the absence of intervention, otherwise the coherence of the twin world scenario falls apart. Complete the sentence by inferring information about the italicized word from its context. What would have to occur in order for the twin world condition not to be satisfied? Riding somewhat roughshod over this debate and allowing that the sign does not indicate an alternate possibility (and therefore a flicker of freedom) because we do not need it too the twin world condition requires a comparison between S (or Jones or whoever) in W1 (where we allow no alternate possibility to exist) with S in W2 (where alternate possibilities incontrovertibly exist). Neither Le Corbusier nor Frank Lloyd Wright could truly be said to have won the argument played out in the 1930s newspaper, as both got some ideas right and many wrong. Therefore, only lacks of mutual trust, and not lack of desire for agreement, can stand in the path of an efficient agreement for the prevention of nuclear warfare. The twin world condition: Where Ss action E in world W1 (a world without alternate possibilities, owing to the possibility of intervention) and Ss action E in twin world W2 (which differs from W1 only insofar as it is a world with alternate possibilities) are congruent then S in either world is morally responsible for E. PAP(s) is not necessary for the ascription of moral responsibility because moral responsibility could still be ascribed to S even where S could not have done otherwise, as the twin world condition illustrates. Moreover, with the addition of the twin word condition, which I have argued is likewise sufficient for an ascription of moral responsibility, we are able to account for why Jones should be held morally accountable. It is true that some irrational element in mass psychology makes gas poison more revolting than blasting by explosives, even though gas warfare is in no way more "inhuman" than the war of bombs and bullets. 13. Russia and China are the only great nations at present which could survive a nuclear attack. For those unfamiliar with Frankfurts original and much cited counter-example to PAP, it reads as follows: Suppose someone Black, let us say wants Jones to perform a certain action. Unreflectively accepts leaders orders: he wants to want this. This is supposed to show that even if we think we have alternative possibilities, we don't actually. For terms and use, please refer to our Terms and Conditions To explain: despite being unable to do otherwise (and so failing to satisfy PAP(s)), if Jones (or S or whoever) is still said to be morally responsibly in virtue of his actions congruence with what his action would have been in a world with alternate possibilities (namely, W2) then this means that we are still reliant on alternate possibilities in some form to justify our moral pronouncements. Oxford: Blackwell. By making PAP sufficient rather than necessary for moral responsibility, it is still the case that anyone who satisfies (a) and (b) is held to account, morally. In 1923, the Journal was incorporated in the State of New York under its present name. the secretaries (leaders) of the departments of the executive branch. Csar Franck was born in Belgium but established his career as a composer, organist, and influential teacher in France, most prestigiously at the Paris Conservatoire and at the church of Sainte-Clotilde. Fischer, J. M. (1994). This site is using cookies under cookie policy . d) The aims of this paper is to argue that, as a maxim for moral responsibility, endorsing PAP as a sufficient condition is as effective as presenting it as a necessary condition. PDF | On Sep 1, 2002, I. Scobbie published Tom Franck's Fairness | Find, read and cite all the research you need on ResearchGate Inherent within each of the aforementioned sufficient conditions is a role for alternate possibilities. In 2008, about ten years after Freire's death, in a special issue of the Journal of Thought dedicated to his ideas, for example, Cal State education professor A. Dee Williams has used the book . For the ascription of moral responsibility, what is necessary is that alternate possibilities have some role to play in whatever conditions we devise to determine who is responsible and who is not, and why. As Jones did what he would have done in the absence of Black, he acted in a manner congruent with what he would have done in a world with alternate possibilities (which is equivalent to W2). Whatever E happens to be, it is congruent across the different worlds within each respective scenario: E is congruent across W1 and W2 within scenario 1 and congruent across W1 and W2 within scenario 2. Russia is known to be mining radium on its own territory; and even if we do not know the size of the deposits discovered so far in the USSR, the probability that no large reserves of uranium will be found in a country which covers one-fifth of the land area of the earth (and whose sphere of influence takes in additional territory) is too small to serve as a basis for security. But in each scenario, S is also morally responsible for E in W1 in virtue of the fact that Ss action in W1 is congruent with Ss action in W2 (it is congruent with what S would have done in a world with alternate possibilities). In the absence of an international authority which would make all resort to force in international conflicts impossible, nations could still be diverted from a path which must lead to total mutual destruction, by a specific international agreement barring a nuclear armaments race. If no efficient international agreement is achieved, the race for nuclear armaments will be on in earnest not later than the morning after our first demonstration of the existence of nuclear weapons. What is the point of the cult-man objection? This item is part of a JSTOR Collection. Atomic bombs containing a larger quantity of active material but still weighing less than one ton may be expected to be available within ten years which could destroy over ten square miles of a city. Therefore, in making suggestions for the postwar organization of nucleonics, a discussion of political problems cannot be avoided. Explain why the objections doesn't seem to work. Young, G. (2007). In: J. E. Tomberlin (Ed. Where S engages in action E, if (a) and (b) are satisfied then S is morally responsible for E. Stating this does not negate the possibility that S could still be held morally responsible for E, however, even where (a) and/or (b) fail to be satisfied, should another sufficient condition (as yet unspecified) be met. However, we found ourselves, by the force of events, during the last five years, in the position of a small group of citizens cognizant of a grave danger for the safety of this country as well as for the future of all the other nations, of which the rest of mankind is unaware. Where neither is satisfied then S is not morally responsible for performing E. Frankfurt-style scenarios illustrate the condition under which PAP(s) is not satisfied. It may be very difficult to persuade the world that a nation which was capable of secretly preparing and suddenly releasing a new weapon, as indiscriminately as the rocket bomb and a thousand times more destructive, is to be trusted in its proclaimed desire of having such weapons abolished by international agreement. Given mutual trust and willingness on all sides to give up a certain part of their sovereign rights, by admitting international control of certain phases of national economy, the control could be exercised (alternatively or simultaneously) on two different levels. Despite such objections, educators have continued to find Pedagogy of the Oppressed relevant and to adapt its arguments to their contemporary context. This protection can come only from the political organization of the world. (1954) and S.J.d. the informal advisers who work with the president to guide and shape their agenda, such a Does libertarian freedom require alternate possibilities? The Psychology Today interview with Jean Piaget took place in 1970 at the height of his influence. I argue that PAP does not need to be endorsed as a necessary condition for moral responsibility and, in fact, presenting PAP as a sufficient condition maintains its usefulness as a maxim for moral accountability whilst avoiding . Alternative possibilities and causal histories. On the other hand, neither did Wright succeed in his wishes to rid our cities of skyscrapers and landlords (and in fact proposed his own mile-high skyscraper two decades later.) If in this way, check is kept on the conversion of uranium and thorium ore into pure fissionable materials, the question arises as to how to prevent accumulation of large quantities of such materials in the hands of one or several nations. Answer: Explanation: Background In 1938, a small group of German scientists accidentally discovered nuclear fission. Philosophy and Phenomenological Research, 80(3), 551565. Pereboom, D. (2009). Born in the Netherlands in 1909, Frederick Franck began his career as an oral surgeon before moving more seriously to his artist pursuits in the 1930s. The consequences of nuclear warfare, and the type of measures which would have to be taken to protect a country from total destruction by nuclear bombing, must be as abhorrent to other nations as to the United States. Use the Previous and Next buttons to navigate the slides or the slide controller buttons at the end to navigate through each slide. I therefore seek to distinguish between alternative possibilities in the form of the alleged necessity of being able to do otherwise on a given occasion, which S cannot satisfy in Frankfurt-style scenarios, and which I do not consider to be necessary for the ascription of moral responsibility (although, to reiterate, I accept it is sufficient), and the role played by alternative possibilities in the twin world condition. honoris causa by the University of British Columbia. And that's the way . The amounts of ore taken out of the ground at different locations could be controlled by resident agents of the international Control Board, and each nation could be allotted only an amount which would make large-scale separation of fissionable isotopes impossible. Writing that American skyscrapers have yet to earn the title of architecture, but are merely small objects such as statuettes or knick-knacks, magnified to titanic proportion, Le Corbusier proposes his plan for the skyscraper. Which claim is best supported by the evidence included in these maps-, Nationalistic movements influenced the borders in Europe at the end of World War I, The Balkans were referred to as the' "Powder keg of Europe" in the period before WWI because of their-, Blamed jews for Germany's loss of World War I, The Nuremberg Laws were written in order to, What is an immediate result of these laws enacted by the Nazi Party--, German Jews were stripped of personal liberties and property rights, Between which two years did the number of collective farms increase the most, Which of the following events was a result of the policy illustrated in the chart-, Which claim can best be supported by this passage-, New technology made warfare more destructive, Which of the following is a result of the historical trend present in the passage-, What implications is the author trying to make in the excerpt-, the Japanese militaristic culture fostered a dehumanization Chinese civilians lives, Which best helps explain the passage in its broader historical context-, The consequences of total war tactics on civilian populations, The example of mass atrocity and genocide introduced in the passage is most similar to which of the following examples, The allied forces firebombing of German cities like Hamburg or Dresden killing thousands, Social Studies American History: Reconstruction to the Present Guided Reading Workbook. Zagzebski, L. (2000). Philosophia In the context of Frankfurts scenario, which I am equating to W1, it is made clear that Jones did what he did irrespective of Blacks wishes, and therefore without the need for Blacks intervention. a) The end of the war would probably lead to a new rivalry between the victorious states. contemporaries who agreed with franck's argumentmarc d'amelio house address. In conclusion, I aim to have shown that by positioning the principle of alternate possibilities as a sufficient condition for the ascription of moral responsibility, rather than as necessary, PAP(s) amounts to as useful a maxim as PAP for determining moral accountability. Personalize your stream and start following your favorite authors, offices and users. Garry Young. FF: if he identifies, is wholeheartedly committed, it doesn't matter where it came from. As such, S fails to satisfy both PAP(s) and the twin world condition, and should not therefore be held to account, morally. Leon, F., & Tognazzini, N. A. Voltaire supposedly kept up his prodigious output by spending up to 18 hours a day writing or dictating to secretaries, often while still in bed. Professor Franck 95110). The Philosophical Review, 104(2), 247261. The power lines damagedbythestorm\underline{\text{damaged by the storm}}damagedbythestorm needed repairs. Thus, if the prospects of an agreement will be considered poor in the immediate future, the pros and cons of an early revelation of our possession of nuclear weapons to the world -- not only by their actual use against Japan, but also by a prearranged demonstration -- must be carefully weighed by the supreme political and military leadership of the country, and the decisions should not be left to the considerations of military tactics alone. Further thoughts about a Frankfurt-style argument. In J. Jordan, & D. Howard-Snyder (Eds. (a) Describe: How does the father react to the stranger's request to look around? The peace agreements should ensure that Germany could never threaten the stability of Europe again. From a progressive modernist's point of view, it was a further exercise of freedom. June 14, 2022 . It is not necessary because, where alternate possibilities are not available (as in, a Frankfurt-style scenario akin to W1), and therefore S could not have done otherwise on a given occasion, one can still ascribe moral responsibility through an enforcement of the twin world condition. Since its founding it has been published fromColumbia University. Therefore, an international agreement is necessary to ensure that nuclear weapons are only used for deterrence purposes and never deployed in a conflict. He may have also been fueled by heroic amounts of . The answer is that all that these advantages can give us is the accumulation of a larger number of bigger and better atomic bombs. The scientists on this project do not presume to speak authoritatively on problems of national and international policy. Google Scholar. Why deck or double-deck or triple-deck the city streets at a cost of billions of dollars, only to invite increase and meet inevitable defeat? Wright asks of Le Corbusiers autostrades. The id is entirely unconscious, while the ego operates in the conscious mind. We feel compelled to take a more active stand now because the success which we have achieved in the development of nuclear power is fraught with infinitely greater dangers than were all the inventions of the past. Connect to Locke's argument about the prisoner. 1969 Journal of Philosophy, Inc. Instead it has harnessed us to itself and plunged us into slavery, he wrote. The certainty that German scientists were working on this weapon and that their government would certainly have no scruples against using it when available, was the main motivation of the initiative which American scientists took in urging the development of nuclear power for military purposes on a large scale in this country. To explain, briefly: where the sign (which is different in different authors examples)Footnote 2 indicates to Black (or whoever or whatever is the counterfactual intervener) that Jones (or whoever it happens to be) is about to decide to do something contrary to Blacks wishes then Black intervenes, thereby limiting Jones decision to one possibility only, which is of course congruent with Blacks wishes. Third parties often bring attention to topics that are unpopular or unknown. While weve yet to see cars hurtling by unimpeded 16 feet above ground as Le Corbusier wished, various methods of separating cars from pedestrians have been attempted in cities around the world. Among all the arguments calling for an efficient international organization for peace, the existence of nuclear weapons is the most compelling one. Donnelly argues both 'radical' cultural relativism and 'radical' universalism are misguided (1984, 403). It is undoubtedly true that the discovery of flying, for example, has so far brought much more misery than enjoyment and profit to humanity. The answer is that even though the largest now known deposits of uranium ores are under the control of powers which belong to the "western" group (Canada, Belgium and British India), the old deposits in Czechoslovakia are outside this sphere. . In his original article, Frankfurt suggests that a twitch might be used to indicate that Jones is about to decide to do A (as opposed to no twitch for B). In addition, I provide a further sufficient condition for moral responsibility the twin world condition and argue that this provides a means of justifying why the protagonist in Frankfurt-style scenarios (e.g., Jones) is still felt to be morally responsible. England, France and the smaller nations of the European continent, with their congeries of people and industries would be in a particularly desperate situation in the face of such a threat. It could be suggested that the danger of destruction by nuclear weapons can be avoided -- at least as far as this country is concerned -- either by keeping our discoveries secret for an indefinite time, or else by developing our nuclear armaments at such a pace that no other nations would think of attacking us from fear of overwhelming retaliation. We believe that our acquaintance with the scientific elements of the situation and prolonged preoccupation with its world-wide political implications, imposes on us the obligation to offer to the Committee some suggestions as to the possible solution of these grave problems. In the war to which such an armaments race is likely to lead, the United States, with its agglomeration of population and industry in comparatively few metropolitan districts, will be at a disadvantage compared to nations whose populations and industry are scattered over large areas. No two are alike, not even a tiny bit. I conclude by arguing that while neither PAP(s) nor the twin world condition is necessary for an ascription of moral responsibility, given that each nevertheless makes reference to alternate possibilities in some form or other (as yet to be discussed), what is necessary is that one of these condition is satisfied: for where both fail to be satisfied, one cannot hold the agent of action morally responsible. We therefore feel it is our duty to urge that the political problems, arising from the mastering of nuclear power, be recognized in all their gravity, and that appropriate steps be taken for their study and the preparation of necessary decisions. Correspondence to What is Kane's "Indeterministic worlds" objection to the FF case? If he refuses then both will be killed. If no choice of targets, with a total area of five hundred square miles of American territory, contains a large enough fraction of the nation's industry and population to make their destruction a crippling blow to the nation's war potential and its ability to defend itself, then the attack will not pay, and may not be undertaken. Question:Contemporaries who agreed with francks argument in the second and third paragraphs regarding the need for an international agreement would most likely have made which of the following arguments to support their position? Written in 1531, likely at the beginning of the year, this work stands temporally in the middle of Marpeck's controversy with the Geister. Likewise: Here, S should not be morally praised for E in W1 as we must conclude that some form of intervention has occurred thereby making Ss action in W1 incongruent with what he would have done in W2. In this sense, it is more akin to the clause if it were the case rather than given that it is. We have invented the machine and it should be liberating our minds and our leisure hours. Describes a situation in which someone is morally responsible but is unable to do otherwise. 20) Contemporaries who agreed with Franck's argument in the second and third paragraphs regarding the need for an international agreement would most likely have made which of the following arguments to support their position? Now the doctrine that coercion and moral responsi- But not by verticality.. It seems that we have not escaped the need for alternate possibilities, thereby making alternate possibilities necessary. A New international organizations could have only a limited effect in restraining the actions of the great powers. On the other hand, it may be argued that without an early demonstration it may prove difficult to obtain adequate support for further intensive development of nucleonics in this country and that thus the time gained by the postponement of an open armaments race will not be properly used. (1959) from Harvard University, and in 1995 was awarded an LL.d. In the next section I present the case for PAP(s) as a maxim for moral accountability; arguing that it is just as informative to the task of ascribing moral responsibility as PAP. Do you agree that under certain circumstances, R2P should override sovereignty? It is 980 too many. With the convenience of modern transportation and future innovations to come, Wright asks why proximity to the city is important. is a place where people live, work, and spend their time. ), Philosophical perspectives, 14, Action and Freedom: A Supplement to Nos, (pp. Division of Psychology, Nottingham Trent University, Burton Street, Nottingham, NG1 4BU, UK, You can also search for this author in You'll now receive updates based on what you follow! Wholehearted commitment: we reach a level where we realize there is no need for further assessment. However, in the past, scientists could disclaim direct responsibility for the use to which mankind had put their disinterested discoveries. Scientists have often before been accused of providing new weapons for the mutual destruction of nations, instead of improving their well-being. Despite the intricacies of some of these continuing debates, focus remains on PAP as a necessary condition for moral responsibility. answer choices. He decided to do this without the intervention of Black, and so made this decision oblivious to the fact that he could not have decided nor done other than he did. He received his LL.M. The aim of this paper is to present a version of the principle of alternate possibilities (PAP) which is not susceptible to the Frankfurt-style counter-example. One possible way to introduce nuclear weapons to the world -- which may particularly appeal to those who consider nuclear bombs primarily as a secret weapon developed to help with the present war -- is to use them without warning on appropriately selected objects in Japan. We do not need, therefore, to draw on any notion of a pre-decision flicker of freedom. Janzen, G. (2013). The correct option is B. Truman's goal was not to destroy Japanese culture or people but to destroy Japan's ability to wage war. Philosophical Explorations, 12(2), 109118. What is necessary is that either PAP(s) or the twin world condition is satisfied. Philosophia, 35, 171180. In the original Frankfurt paper, Jones is written as Jones4, owing the fact that at previous points in his paper, Frankfurt had discussed other versions of Jones (Jones 13). The necessity of some role for alternate possibilities does not, however, in and of itself, make necessary the clause that S (or whoever) could have done otherwise. We felt, however, that the dilemma had to be stated, to show what kind of alternative method of protection will have to be considered if no successful international agreement is reached. Nuclear bombs cannot possibly remain a "secret weapon" at the exclusive disposal of this country for more than a few years. Instead, the role played by alternative possibilities in the twin world condition is more subjunctive, insofar as what is described is a possibility rather than an actuality. b) [18] In this way, other nations may assume a share of responsibility for such a fateful decision. As long as nuclear bombs remain scarce (i.e. volume44,pages 961969 (2016)Cite this article. Again, S fails to satisfy PAP(s) and the twin world condition, and so is not morally responsible for E, even though E is a good thing to have done in this case. Not to mention, the natural landscape certainly was not given priority in planning most suburban settlements. His music was heavily influenced by Liszt and Wagner, as in his Symphony in D minor, one of his most famous .